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PRE-COLONIAL Nigerian economy: dynamic or stagnant?

Introduction

It has been seen by some Eurocentric writers that pre-colonial West African economy was stagnant, subsistence and lacked real market situation before British colonization. This argument stems some anthropological insights (substantivalist standpoint) that the main sector of this economy is basically subsistence agriculture, which had Indeed stalled as a result of the application of simple technology, without qualifications organized. Production target is said to guarantee the human existence little or no change as a result of limited Output1. For this view, the industrial region of simple and non-governmental organizations, such as pre-colonial societies in Africa West lacked certain necessary prerequisite for a market economy and as such economic terms and theories should not be applied to explain his structure2 economic.

The study therefore intends to unravel the pre-colonial Indian economy of Nigeria, both in scope and structure and attempts to show that is dynamic and who possessed the true state of high-level market, given their characteristics. The study is divided into three main segments â € "general characteristics of an economic system, the structure of the pre-colonial Nigeria's economy and the justification for the pre-colonial Nigeria Economy as a dynamic and market-oriented. A market economy is one in which decentralized decision making, ie market issues are determined mainly by market forces, that is, the demand and supply. This is different from the command economy in which decision making is decentralized and controlled by authority 3. In every economic system, there are three basic economic functions, no matter the nature, type and level of government or economy4. These are, what and how much produce, how it occurs, and for whom it is produced. This implies that each economic system is concerned with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services. Every economic system is linked to a political system through which people decide what their wishes of society.

A vital role of any economic system is coordination. He must see that individuals € ™ decisions about what they are coordinated with SocietyA ™ € s wants and what other people do. This coordination includes, moral, social and political values, economic integration that ensures that what an individual wants not exceed what is available in society5. This partly explains why there is no economic system can easily be operated successfully out of context socio-cultural development of its indigenous environment.

In this context, it would be paid to examine the structure and scope of the pre-colonial Nigeria's economy. The spring main wire and the life of any society are mostly referred to as its economic and human potential. Nigeria did not take exception to this universal rule. The kingdoms, states and empires that existed in the pre-colonial Nigeria were large and thriving not only because of its sound socio-political institutions, but also as a result of abundant natural resources such as agriculture, trade and crafts. An observation of the terrain and climate in Nigeria highlights the diversity natural potential of leading to economic viability and a wide variety of occupations. The structure of the economy of pre-colonial Nigeria and rested primarily largely on the nature of the vegetation, the housework and the main components are agricultural activities, handicrafts, trade, and its system of shipping.

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Agriculture          Â

Agriculture is a primary economic activity in Nigeria, which form the livelihood of peoples and an important factor for the emergence of states and empires as the case everywhere in the world. In the words of Evans â € "â € œThe Pritchards first evolution that transformed the human economy gave man control over their own food supply, the man began to plant, cultivate and improve the selection of herbs, roots, and trees 6 €. This Economic progress has been described as â € € œneolitic revolution. As in modern times, in pre-colonial Nigeria, a major determinant for the choice of solution is the availability of favorable climate, free from epidemics, fertile land suitable for cultivation and grazing, environment friendly for inshore fishing and safety, such as absence of war and other disasters, natural and supernatural. When these factors were missing, people resorted to migration for comfortably habitable zone. Considering these phenomena, the reasons for crop rotation in agricultural planting, normadism in grazing and roaming Fishing could be understood. In other words, environmental factors play a role in human settlement7.

The way to practice agriculture and The crops planted were determined by the nature of the soil and the terrain of the region. Shifting cultivation and crop rotation agricultural practices characterized in pre-colonial Nigeria, mainly due to the practice of land tenure and lack of knowledge of the highly mechanized agriculture. There were natural problems such as erosion, drought, pests and diseases. These problems were addressed at the local level, depending on individual communities. For example, set traps to catch birds and pests on farms and canals were also dug to drain the water to check floods. Wetting of farms during the drought has been an ancient agricultural practice among Nigerians. All these practices are not necessarily influenced by conservation as seen by some Western observers but the most effective and proper maintenance of soil fertility and the assessment of the economic situation of the period8

In pre-colonial Nigeria, the farmers' reliance on tools such as wood, hoes, machetes and sickles. The common crops produced on the basis of territorial specialization, including, yam, okra, vegetables, maize, cocoyam, cassava, plantains, bananas, oil kolanuts and palm9. Independent growth and age of African Agriculture and Nigeria in particular has been severely tested by some economic historians of Africa. Among them was Murdock, an ethnographer who argued that agriculture began in the Upper Niger area between the Mende-speaking people in about 5000BC10 base their research on the cultivation of yams in the region. Although one can not doubt the great antiquity of agriculture in Nigeria, we must, in the same note, did not rule out the possibility of cultivation of yams and other crops before or around the time (5000BC), in other parts of Nigeria. Interestingly, theory and hypothesis diffusionist hamitic that tend to argue that all events are imported in Africa have been proved wrong by the nature of agricultural development in sub-regions11. While it is undeniable that some crops were introduced from other parts of Nigeria, it is clear that agriculture in Nigeria developed naturally and independently, without foreign mechanism12. Whatever it was later introduced to it is complementary to the existing system.

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Fishing, Hunting and grazing

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Fishing                                            Â

Fishing is an economic activity to the old in Nigeria. Its activities cover both coastal and inland waterways and is of enormous economic value for the pre-colonial Nigerians13. Fish was one of the main items of the products Nigeria's trade. The fish of various types were dried in the sun or smoked to preserve them for long distance or short market14. The fresh fish is said to be marketed primarily in the areas of short distance, due to the perishable nature and the problem of the storage facility. Professional fishing craft features and specialist skills, such as boats, canoe, paddle, float, float and building networks, along with the invention of a variety of fishing techniques and indigenous arts. Fishing in the pre-colonial Nigeria so far as migration generates many of its practitioners would have to leave their homes to improve the prospects of elsewhere15. Fishing migration rate was very prominent among the Ilaje, Izon, Itsekiri, Efik, Jukun, Ijebu, Awori etc. From the pre-colonial period to date, the Ilaje are said to have been the most migratory, celebrities and professionals, both in inland and deep sea fishing not only in Nigeria but in West and Central Africa16. Around the 16th century, fishing is said to be practiced with rudimentary techniques and tools such as raffia materials, wood and herbs scope17 ads very limited. By the late 18th century to 19th century, most fishermen in Nigeria had begun the development of fishing gear and improved techniques, such as clapnets, cast nets, ita, egho, asuras ojijon, Agada, IGHE, iyanma, ekobi Riro ufo,, 18 fishing economy of Nigeria etc. at this stage of progressive development on the eve of colonization British.

Hunting                  Â

Hunting can be considered as one of the leading economic activities in the pre-colonial Nigeria. It was very important because many people depend on it for their economic survival in a stage of economic development. However, over time, hunting became a fixture of interest to agriculture19. Hunting in Nigeria during this period was several levels. A lower level, the game included setting traps for birds, young animals, like squirrels, monkeys, grass cutters, alligators, etc. Another level is the hunting of larger animals such as crocodile, elephant, wild pigs, antelopes, etc., and perhaps was still the belief in most communities local in Nigeria that hunting, especially on the upper level, plus special skills involving the use of charms and supernatural possession powers20. Hunting was a reliable source of meat and fur for clothing, footwear and drum-making. Besides its economic value, was a means by which the foot paths and settlements were created before the advent of the European mode of road construction and settlement of the city. Consequently, these roads and villages developed after roads, towns and villages. The hunters worked as security agents by protecting people from attacks by enemies or wild animals. Hunters also provides animals and their special pieces that have medicinal value among indigenous medicine practitioners21. Complementary to the game was to collect fruit. Collection of the variety of berries was an economic enterprise for some people, especially women in pre-colonial Nigeria. Fruits and spices are important for food and herbal medicine, therefore, demand has been and remains high until the date on the local market in Nigeria places22.

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Grazing               Â

This was another economic practice in the pre-colonial Nigeria. This is the breeding of animals, especially cattle, goats and sheep in amounts business going from a fertile land to another. As a result of the infestation of the forest region by the tsetse fly and lack of open space in the south, even with swampy nature of the plains, the presence of rivers and streams in the coastal region and the presence of open land in the north, grazing was mainly practiced by the Fulani in the region of the northern savanna Nigeria22. Both grazing and hunting are related to agricultural crops from which all directly and indirectly deal animals. However, mixed farming was not widespread, some form of symbiosis between farmers and postoralists. For example, cattle dung formed manure to the land which in turn supported the growth of crops, while the postoralists depended on food crops of farmers. On the other hand, production Livestock is a source of beef for the forest dwellers, the workers demanded the skin to produce leather shoes, handbags, coat of arms of war, arrow keys, etc. horses23 harness Kano in northern Nigeria, was renowned for the qualifications. Pastoral activities were of great economic value in the pre-colonial Nigeria. Â Â Â Â Â

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Craft     Â

A discussion on the development of craft among pre-colonial, Nigerians need a description of their arts and industries in different levels. Arts and craft works in which they were famous Nigerians including the extraction of salt, soap production, metalwork, wood and activities knitting. This huge development reminds us how far technology has advanced in Nigeria indigenous pre-colonial period. It is evident that iron technology has developed considerably in the pre-colonial Nigeria and this revolutionized and crafts produced in Nigeria and indeed Africa24.

The salt production was a of mineral extraction, which was not available in most areas, but a necessary and important local product into a commodity import merchants25 foreigners. In pre-colonial Nigeria, the production of salt in large quantities was naturally limited to coastal areas due to the availability of raw materials such as water salt. The production method was the evaporation of sea water either by boiling or sunbathing. Among coastal residents in Nigeria, especially the Ilaje, Itsekiri and Ijaw, the process of collecting seawater in a large clay pot, cooked until it dries, leaving a solid white substance at the bottom. This would collected, with a small basket to filter dirt26. What remained was the salt that can be largely free of impurities. This industrial activity more trade among the inhabitants of the coast and inland in the pre-colonial Nigeria. In the region of the interior too, the salt is said to be produced in relatively small amount may especially among the region Jukun Benue and the Igbo of Eastern Nigeria27.

Closely related to this pre-colonial economic project was the production soap. This was mainly carried out by settlers in the forest region of Nigeria. The main raw materials for production of palm oil soap were and ash. These would be cooked together and molded28. In pre-colonial Nigeria, for example, there were different types of soap. In addition to domestic and commercial uses, value29 soap also took drugs. The Ose Dudu (black soap) among the Yoruba, for example, is still used to date for these purposes.

Two important aspects of pre-colonial Nigeria crafts that deserve attention in this study are metal and wood. A careful study of the history of Nigeria would reveal that, of all trades, iron work was more important to the general economic and political development in pre-colonial period. The Iron Age was the period in which the Nigerians began to dominate and actively manage their environment. The discovery of iron led to the manufacture of iron tools such as hoes, knives, machetes, spears, axes and greater productivity of these influenced the craft, agriculture, fisheries and hunting30. Apart from the economic revolution caused by the smelter iron, also equipped most of the leaders with political power higher and stronger. For example, possession of iron weapons influenced the growth military and the subjugation of weaker communities by strong ones31. The introduction of iron led Nigeria to forge black throughout the region. The earliest proof iron foundry in West Africa Nok, a village in central Nigeria, northeast of the confluence of the Niger and Benue rivers and south of Joseph Pleateau32. The Yoruba, Igbo (especially people Awka) and Uneme (in Benin) were noted in iron smelting technology in pre-colonial era. The Uneme, for example, said to have developed before C1370 black smithy and iron are said to have played commercial role, as it was used as a medium of exchange (native currency) 33.

An important mineral production in the pre-colonial Nigeria was gold. Gold was mined, consumed locally and exported. It has more economic value other products, as it was mainly a currency earning34 article. In pre-colonial period, Benin and Ile-Ife became famous for bronze casting and centers of excellence production of tin existed in Jos Plateau and zinc in the bottom of Niger and Benue Rivers35. However, it is important to note that production hampered by high wooden art symbolic cultural value.

Ife and Benin had been regarded as the most famous among African States Western use of brass and bronze. In the skill, quality and beauty, the Benin bronzes, old is said to have equaled those produced in any part of the worldÂ43. It was once claimed by some writers that both Nigeria Nigerian art bronze foundry and use ofa natural figures to represent humans and animals was imported by Europeans, whether legitimate or through smuggling. If this was real, would indicate that the art of Nigeria had already achieved a remarkable and enviable status of world standard before the arrival of imported art. The fundamental point of view to be accepted is that, while EU imports of brass and bronze production completed Nigerian art, much of Nigeria working in these alloys is before the arrival of the Portuguese in the century44 15.

Studies have shown that the figures naturalists had been found in the region of Chad in the manner of burial sites before the 15th century. Also, do not know that primitive peoples have worked in bronze and brass had produced similar figures in other media. The ancient Nok people, for example, produces replicas of human heads and animals of high artistic merit and value, and the reasons stylized wood, clay, gold, and ivory45.

Trade and transport system were equally relevant to the growth and development pre-colonial economy of Nigeria. The people of Nigeria has been organized at both regional and interregional trade based on regional specialization of production involves the practice of the principle of comparative cost advantage. They developed the local transport system of land use (portage head) and the forms of water (canoes) and some forms of exchange media, such as barter, Manila, brass, iron, copper and Cowry shells46. Different states, empires and kingdoms in the pre-colonial Nigeria developed to prominence as a result of organized trade and transport relatively good. Organization of market during this period was heavily influenced by the abundant production of farm and nonfarm people. As a result of the variety of product offerings to market, was not departmentalization of goods, order and the periodic market system in the states of Nigeria, as pre-colonial Yoruba society47. However, poor transport system hindered mobility, production and distribution of goods and services, to some extent.

One could argue that since the production was beyond household consumption and there was no exchange of inter-regional territorial specialization based on the economics of pre-colonial Nigeria was therefore beyond the level subsistence. It has also been argued that the organization of the Trans-Saharan and transatlantic trade in which Nigeria was an active participant in international outlook48 was.

It has been suggested by some Western economists that the factors of production were not well coordinated and that there was no division of labor or specialization in economics from pre-colonial Nigeria. This seems false and misleading. In traditional African society, men and women are inherently special partner assigned to different functions economic in which each sex is Excel (sexual division of labor). It is true that specialization is applicable to many aspects of economic activity in Nigeria. By example, coastal dwellers who specialized in repairing fishing nets were taken as a specialty area, while some specialized in deep-sea fishing (Oko-Ota or ADE-ODO), others were working in or freshwater fishing (Eremi). In both areas of activities fishing, too many special skills49 departments. There is a saying among the Yoruba people fishing in the Niger Delta, € â € œOghomayi emayiâ (specialization and ability varies from person to person). This shows the degree to which specialization and the acquisition of skills are recognized in some pre-colonial Nigerian societies.

Labor was very crucial in the process of production and free labor was cheaper, therefore, pre-colonial, Nigerians labor recruitment through their wives, children, slaves and their families. In some cases, the supply of labor was through community assistance. One reason sustainable for the marriage of many women among men in Nigeria to ensure adequate supply, cheap and stable workforce. Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations states â € œâ large family of children, rather than being a burden is a source of opulence and prosperity to the parents 50 €. This reinforces the philosophy The economy of the African practice of polygany.

System of land tenure practiced partner to meet the economic requirements of the time. It is true that land was abundant relative to the Nigerian population51. Capital was raised through personal savings, loans from friends, family, co-operatives (Egbe or esusu) or family or community chest.

A vital factor in the structure of pre-colonial Nigerian economy was entrepreneurship. This is an important factor of production in any economy at any time. Profit would be to investigate what is an entrepreneur in order to determine whether pre-colonial Nigerians really deserves quality. Some believe that entrepreneurship primarily as innovators, others think of them, especially as business managers, other more important emphasis on its role as mobilizers and allocators capital52. Hosetitz further held that an employer is a business leader, who guide the action of a productive private enterprise, and took the crucial decisions on the use of production factors in their earnings over the nature and style of the products or services to produce, and timing and other aspects of production and marketing process53.

In pre-colonial Nigeria, as elsewhere, other factors of production like capital, land and work is organized and used effectively for production. It follows that all factors of production that there would not be useful without entrepreneurs. The pre-colonial Nigerian entrepreneurs are the rulers, chiefs and potentates, warlords, and other men and women was influential enough wealth and power to rally other factors production54. For example, Kano potentates organized the production of leather works, heads Ijebu organization of textile production, the heads of Ilaje organization of production of fish, the heads of Ikal also organized the production of farm crops. Madam Tinubu of Egbaland and Ibadan Efunsetan women were also among notable that the slaves organized their farms55. The distribution of goods are also made by entrepreneurs in Nigeria through the organization of long-distance market and short on bilateral or multilateral, within and outside their regions.

While one can argue that most financial institutions and principles found in industrial societies have their equivalence in or simple non-industrial societies such as pre-colonial Nigeria, it is still essential to note that factors of production and other elements in the structure of the pre-colonial Nigeria's economy, like agriculture and handicrafts have their peculiarities. Therefore, in order that the work of economic historian and the economist most significant your audience, careful selection and application of relevant financial terms and principles are imperative.

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Conclusion

Given the general characteristics and a myriad of sub-sectoral components of the pre-colonial Nigerian economy, is convincing evidence that the economy growth was progressive and sensitive to innovation before colonization by the British in the 19th century. The study has shown that pre-colonial Nigeria's economy was a traditional system of the African economy in which production depends heavily on families, groups and community efforts professional guilds. It should be noted that traditional economic system, which can be called â € € œcommunalismâ practice was inherently similarly in different autonomous regions of the geographical expression called Nigeria later.

In a scientific analysis that refers to value-free nature of the research, the positivist point position reinforces the statement that pre-colonial Nigeria's economy was dynamic and market. It is the position of this economic philosophy, the fundamental economic problem in any society, regardless of place and time in history, is provide a set of rules to channel competition and conflict resolution among individuals who can not satisfy all their needs, given the constraints of scarcity. It has been argued by Roger Leroy, for example, that the production target at the ages when the world remains the same and that human behavior toward economic issues similar56 universally.

All these fundamental economic rules are said to be embedded in a formal framework of social institutions, such as laws and customs. The specific role of each economic system of any society would take care of the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services to create utility57. Pre-colonial Nigeria, the economy would therefore be an exception to these rules and universal principles. This study is in the light of These features show that the pre-colonial Nigerian economy was dynamic, progressive and market oriented.

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NOTES AND REFERENCES

1.a               A detailed discussion and critique of substantivalist and views Zeleza formalist might be found in J. A recent economic history of Africa, vol. 1 (Senegal: CODESTRIA) 1993 PP 15 ⠀ "16.

2nd               See A. G Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa: London: Longman, 5 ⠀ "9.

3rd               Roger Leroy Miller, Economy Today, New York: Harper Collins College Publishers, 1996, 122.

4.a               Roger Leroy, Economics Today, p. 122.

5.a               David C. Colander, Economy: Irwin, Burr Ridge Sillinois Boston, Massachusetts, Sydney, Australia 1994, 60 ⠀ "62.

6.a               G. T Stride, C. Ifeka, peoples and empires of West Africa, (Hong Kong: Thomas Nelson, 1971, 158.

7.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â S. W Wooldridge and W. G East, the spirit and purpose Geography: London, Hutchinson & Co. Publishers, 1951, 23 â € "24.

8.a               View Ogunremi G. O â € œThe Structure of the Pre-Colonial Economy € P 16.

9.a               Ogunremi, â € œThe Structure of the Pre-Colonial Economy €     P 16.

10.a          G. P Murdock, Africa, the peoples and their history P Culture: London, 1959, 64.

11.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â GO Ogunremi, P 15.

12.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â GO Ogunremi, P 15.

13.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Ehinmore, OM â € œFishing in southwestern Nigeria in the 19th Century: A Study of the Economy Ilaje Fishing € UCA African Studies Review, Lagos, first Academic Publishers, vol. 1, No. 1, 2002, 56.

14th          See G. T Stride, C. Ifeka, People and Empires of West Africa, Hong Kong: Thomas Nelson, 1971, p. 159.

15.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Ayodeji Olukoju: â € œFishing, Migration and intergroup relations in the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic coast of Africa West) on 19 and 20 € Centuriesâ Itinerary, vol. XXV, European Journal of Overseas History P 70.

16.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Olukoju Ayodeji, P 70.

17.a          Kalejaye Interviews with Eniola, fisherman, over 85yrs, a Odonla, 20/5/2006.

18th          Ehinmore, Omorele M. â € œà Fishing History in Ondo State, 1950 â € "1997: A Case Study of Costa Ilaje € area (M. A Thesis, University of Lagos, 1998), 19-24.

19.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â View GO Ogunremi, â € œThe Structure of the Pre-Colonial Economy € 20.

20.a          Odegbemi interview with Ariyo, hunter, 92yrs, a ERINJO, 10/5/2006.

21.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Odegbemi Ariyo gave detailed value of the various types of animals and their special parts in the preparation of traditional medicine before and even after the introduction of orthodox medicine.

22.a          Odegbemi interview with Ariyo.

23.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â GO Ogunremi, P 21.

24.a          W Andah Bassey, the Nigerian Indigenous Technology (Ibadan, Ibadan University Press, 1992), pp 1-4.

25.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â See G. T Stride, C. Ifeka, p 159.

26.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Mejebi interviews with edema, in Warri, 16/6/2006, 94yrs, old trader and fisherman. This fact was reinforced by Ehinmore Ajao, a historian of the palace and a musician of age, 10/6/2006, Mahin interviewed about 82yrs.

27th          A. E Afigbo, â € œEconomic Fundamentals of Pre-colonial Igbo in Akinjogbin SocietyA € I. and S. O osoba (eds.), Topics on Nigerian Economic and Social Histor (Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press, 1980), p. 15.

28.a          GT Stride, C. Ifeka, p 159.

29th          Watch interview with Odegbemi Ariyo, 10/5/2006.

30th          Dennis Williams: â € Oean Outline History of Tropical Africa in Joseph C. € Arta A Kid and Godfrey Brown (eds.), Africa in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, (Ibadan University Press, 1966), pp 60-65.

31st          Nene and Godfrey Brown, P 60.

32nd          Thurston Shaw, â € œThe Pre-history of the West Africae € in J. E Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder (eds.), History of West Africa, (London: Longman, 1971), p. 69.

33a          View Dennis Williams, â € History Oean scheme Arta € tropical Africa, Africa in the nineteenth and XX, P. 65.

34th          GO Ogunremi, P. 22.

35th          G. Stride T and C. Ifeka, P. 161.

36.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â GT Stride and C. Ifeka p. 101.

37th          Richard and Jon Lander, Journal of the expedition to explore the course and termination of the Niger (London, 1932), 197.

38th          G. Stride T and C. Ifeka, P. 159.

39th          NAI Ilaje Intelligence Report, Ondo Province, by RJM Curwen, File No. D O. 119, 1937, p. 35.

40th          interviews with Fibilia Majofodun in Ereke, 12/6/206, about 80yrs, a fishmonger and Weaver mat.

41st          Dennis Williams, P 70.

42nd          View Bassey, W. Andah for detailed explanation of the construction of the Technology of Nigeria, Pp 55-70.

43rd          G. T Stride and C. Ifeka, P 160.

44th          Stride and Ifeka, P. 160.

45th          Stride and Ifeka, P. 160.

46.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Toyin Falola, â € œTrade and market Pre-Colonial Economy € G. and E. O Ogunremi Faluyi K (eds.), An Economic History of West Africa since 1750, Pp 61-71.

47th          IA Akinjogbin, â € œThe Economic Foundations of Oyo in Akinjogbin € Empireo I. and S. O osoba (eds.),        Topics in Nigeria, Economic and Social History, Ife: University of Ife Press, 1980, pp 35-42.

48th          E. E Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A description of livelihood and political institutions of the people Nile, Oxford, 1940, p. 77.

49th          For a detailed analysis of the different areas specialization in fisheries Ehinmore OM, â € œFishing in southwestern Nigeria in the 19th Century: A Study of the Economy Fishing Ilaje € pp 58-62.

50th          Adam Smith, an inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations: London, 1901, Volume 1, p. 29, quoted in G. and E. O Ogunremi K Faluyi, An Economic History of West Africa since 1750, P 34.

51st          GO Ogunremi, â € œTraditional Factors of Production in Pre-colonial economy in G. and E. O Ogunremi Faluyi K (eds), A History West African Economic since 1750, p. 33.

52.a          Bert F. Hoselitz, â € œThe € Entrepreneurs Development in E. Africa F Jackson (ed), Economic Development in Africa, Oxford, 1965, p 86. Quoted in a story West African Economic since 1750.

53rd          Hoselitz: â € œThe Development African Entrepreneurs € p. 87.

54th          G. O Ogunremi, â € Factors œTraditional of Production €      p. 39.

55.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â GO Ogunremi, P. 40.

56.A Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Roger Leroy Miller, Economics Today, p. 122.

57th          Roger Leroy Miller, P. 122.Â

How can I make my own molds for making soap and candles?

cookie cutters to make good molds? And if I wanted to make handmade soap for a girl (whom I love very much) would find that funny or gayish Me? (I am a man by the way): P Thanks for any help.

I really have no idea how to make soap, but I, for one, love the idea! That's not so gayish, his beautiful, no reflective flattering a woman Im just giving my opinion on it:)

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Dial Soap Reindeer Cookie Cutter See Reviews For This Product Description Material - Plastic Color - Orange Size - 4" x 2 3/4" (Season's Greeting's From Dial on back of cutter) Please note cutters are vintage and may show wear.

Dial Soap Christmas Tree Cookie Cutter See Reviews For This Product Description Material - Plastic Color - Red Size - 4" x 2 1/4" (Season's Greeting's From Dial on back of cutter) Please note cutters are vintage and may show wear.

KRUD KUTTER KK32 Original Concentrated Cleaner/Degreaser, 32-Ounce Sale Price: $11.96   Eligible for free shipping! Availability: Usually ships in 24 hours See Reviews For This Product Description Super concentrated cleaner, degreaser stain remover, water based biodegradable. Cuts grease, grime, oil, tar, and wax fast. Cleans home, showers, carpets, clothes, autos, and boats. Nontoxic. Nonabrasive. Nonflammable. No other single product removes real Features Environmentally friendly, water based, non-toxic, biodegradable, non-flammable and xylene-free Safe for use at home and work From the most trusted name in serious, non-solvent cleaning Krud Kutter Super concentrated, ready to use formula

All-Clad Stainless-Steel Serving Tray with 13-inch Pizza-Baking Stone Insert and Pizza Cutter List Price: $119.99 Sale Price: $109.95 You save: $10.04 (8%)   Eligible for free shipping! Availability: Usually ships in 24 hours See Reviews For This Product Description This set comes complete with a round pizza stone, Stainless serving tray and large pizza cutter. Features Stainless-steel tray with round-shaped 13-inch pizza-baking stone Stay-cool side handles for secure transport in and out of the oven Doubles as a serving tray; oven-safe up to 400 degrees F; hand-wash only Includes sharp stainless-steel pizza cutter with easy-grip handle Measures approximately 17 by 14 by 1 inches; limited lifetime warranty

French Fry Cutter, Potato Slicer, Italian Sale Price: $18.95   Eligible for free shipping! Availability: Usually ships in 1-2 business days See Reviews For This Product Description French Fry Cutter, Potato Slicer, ItalianThis French fry cutter will beat your favorite restaurant fries. Make your French fries fresh and without a lot of work. Designed and Made in Italy.Lock the powerful suction cups and place the peeled potato on the cutter. To lock the suction make sure that the French Fry cutter is on a flat smooth surface and the rear lip of the cutter is placed such that the cutter remains flat. For suction always use a hand towel on the lever, as the suction is very powerful.Remove your hand and press down. You have cut a whole potato in seconds. These are extremely sharp blades and care must be taken to remove them for cleaning. Body is made of durable plastic and cutter is stainless steel. Measures about 8"x4"x5" overall.Features: Made in Italy, ABS Plastic with Stainless Steel Blades Cuts 36 French fry pieces from one potato Powerful Suction holds the French Fry Cutter in place. Use a hand towel on the lever for suction, as it is a powerful suction. Hand wash the French Fry Slicer with soap and water. French fry cutter has one removable blade screen for ease in washing Features Made in Italy, ABS Plastic with Stainless Steel Blades Cuts 36 French fry pieces from one potato Powerful Suction holds the French Fry Cutter in place Hand wash the French Fry Slicer with soap and water French fry cutter has one removable blade screen for ease in washing

Dial Soap Gingerbread Boy Cookie Cutter See Reviews For This Product Description Material - Plastic Color - Orange Size - 4" x 2 1/2" (Season's Greeting's From Dial on back of cutter) Please note cutters are vintage and may show wear.